Magnesium has atomic number 12 and the symbol Mg.
A magnesium atom consists out of 12 electrons, 12 protons and 12 neutrons.
Magnesium is a shiny silver-gray solid lightweight alkaline earth metal.
Magnesium's melting point is 650 degrees celcius.
And magnesium's boiling point is 1091 degrees celcius.
Magnesium is protected by a thin layer of oxide that is fairly
impermeable and hard to remove.
Magnesium has three stable isotopes: 24Mg, 25Mg and 26Mg.
And The isotope 28Mg is radioactive.
The metal can be produced artificially, and is highly reactive.
Magnesium is essential to all cells and some 300 enzymes.
Magnesium ions interact with polyphosphate compounds such as DNA.
And hundreds of enzymes require magnesium ions to function.
Magnesium compounds:
Magnesium forms a variety of compounds important to industry and biology,
For example: Magnesium carbonate, magnesium chloride, magnesium citrate,
magnesiumhydroxide (milk of magnesia),
magnesium oxide, magnesium sulfate, and magnesium
sulfate heptahydrate (Epsom salts).
Compound uses:
Magnesium compounds are used medicinally
Magnesium carbonate, chalk is used as a drying agent for sports where grip is required
Extra: Roasting either magnesium carbonate or magnesium hydroxide produces the oxygen
compound magnesium
oxide,which is used in the
manufacture of cements, high temperature
refractory bricks, electrical and
thermal insulators, fertilizer, rubber, and plastics.
Uses of magnesium:
To make aluminium-magnesium alloys
Die-casting (alloyed with zinc)
Production of titanium in the Kroll process
Magnesium is used in super-strong, lightweight materials and alloys
Because of low weight and good mechanical and electrical properties it is widely used in electronics
As an additive agent in conventional propellants
As a reducing agent to separate uranium and other metals from their salts.
Magnesium batteries
Safety:
Magnesium metal and its alloys can be explosive hazards.
They are highly flammable in their pure form when molten or in powder or ribbon form
And it reacts violently with water.
When working with powdered magnesium,
safety glasses with eye protection and UV filters
are employed because burning magnesium produces ultraviolet light.
dinsdag 28 november 2017
donderdag 23 november 2017
Sodium notes
Sodium has atomic number 11 and the symbol Na.
A sodium atom consists out of 11 electrons, 11 protons and 12 neutrons.
Sodium is a soft, silver-white, highly reactive metal.
And sodium is an alkali metal.
Natrium's melting point is 97.794 degree celcius.
And natrium's boiling point is 882.940 degrees celcius.
Natrium has a single electron in its outer shell
that it readily donates which creates a positively charged ion the Na+ cation.
Twenty isotopes of sodium are known, but only 23Na is stable
The free metal does not occur in nature, but must be prepared from compounds.
Sodium at standard temperatures and pressures
is a metal that combines with oxygen in air and forms
grayish white sodium oxide unless immersed in oil or inert gas.
Sodium is a good conductor of electricity and heat.
Sodium ions are the major cation in the extracellular fluid.
In a flame, sodium and its compounds glow yellow.
Sodium compound uses 1:
Table salt (NaCl)
Baking soda (NaHCO3)
Sodium compound uses 2:
Soda ash (Na2CO3)
Sodium compound uses 3:
Sodium nitrate (NaNO3)
Sodium compound uses 4:
Caustic soda (NaOH)
Sodium compound uses 5:
For producing glass
For producing paper
For producing soap
And for producing textiles
Sodium uses 1:
For making sodium vapor lamps
Sodium uses 2:
Liquid sodium is used as a heat transfer fluid in some types of
nuclear reactors. Because it has high thermal conductivity and
low neutron absorption cross section required to achieve a
high neutron flux in the reactor.
Safety:
Sodium forms flammable hydrogen and caustic sodium hydroxide on contact with water.
And it can cause severe burns.
Special fire extinguishers are needed to put out sodium fires.
A sodium atom consists out of 11 electrons, 11 protons and 12 neutrons.
Sodium is a soft, silver-white, highly reactive metal.
And sodium is an alkali metal.
Natrium's melting point is 97.794 degree celcius.
And natrium's boiling point is 882.940 degrees celcius.
Natrium has a single electron in its outer shell
that it readily donates which creates a positively charged ion the Na+ cation.
Twenty isotopes of sodium are known, but only 23Na is stable
The free metal does not occur in nature, but must be prepared from compounds.
Sodium at standard temperatures and pressures
is a metal that combines with oxygen in air and forms
grayish white sodium oxide unless immersed in oil or inert gas.
Sodium is a good conductor of electricity and heat.
Sodium ions are the major cation in the extracellular fluid.
In a flame, sodium and its compounds glow yellow.
Sodium compound uses 1:
Table salt (NaCl)
Baking soda (NaHCO3)
Sodium compound uses 2:
Soda ash (Na2CO3)
Sodium compound uses 3:
Sodium nitrate (NaNO3)
Sodium compound uses 4:
Caustic soda (NaOH)
Sodium compound uses 5:
For producing glass
For producing paper
For producing soap
And for producing textiles
Sodium uses 1:
For making sodium vapor lamps
Sodium uses 2:
Liquid sodium is used as a heat transfer fluid in some types of
nuclear reactors. Because it has high thermal conductivity and
low neutron absorption cross section required to achieve a
high neutron flux in the reactor.
Safety:
Sodium forms flammable hydrogen and caustic sodium hydroxide on contact with water.
And it can cause severe burns.
Special fire extinguishers are needed to put out sodium fires.
dinsdag 21 november 2017
Neon notes
Neon has atomic number 10 and the symbol Ne.
A neon atom exists out of 10 electrons, 10 protons and 10 neutrons.
And neon is a noble gas.
Neon is the second lightest inert gas.
Neon is a colourless, odorless, inert monatomic gas under standard conditions.
The compounds of neon include ionic molecules.
Molecules held together by van der Waals forces and clathrates.
Neon has three stable isotopes.
20Ne, 21Ne and 22Ne.
21Ne and 22Ne are partly primordial and partly nucleogenic.
Neon is extracted by the fractional distillation of liquid air.
Uses:
Neon is used in some plasma tubes.
Neon is used in vacuum discharge tubes and it glows reddish-orange.
Neon is used in refrigerant applications.
Neon-helium lasers.
A neon atom exists out of 10 electrons, 10 protons and 10 neutrons.
And neon is a noble gas.
Neon is the second lightest inert gas.
Neon is a colourless, odorless, inert monatomic gas under standard conditions.
The compounds of neon include ionic molecules.
Molecules held together by van der Waals forces and clathrates.
Neon has three stable isotopes.
20Ne, 21Ne and 22Ne.
21Ne and 22Ne are partly primordial and partly nucleogenic.
Neon is extracted by the fractional distillation of liquid air.
Uses:
Neon is used in some plasma tubes.
Neon is used in vacuum discharge tubes and it glows reddish-orange.
Neon is used in refrigerant applications.
Neon-helium lasers.
maandag 20 november 2017
Fluorine notes
Fluorine has atomic number 9 and the symbol F.
A fluorine atom exists of 9 electrons, 9 protons and 10 neutrons.
Fluorine the lightest halogen and exists as a highly toxic pale yellow
diatomic gas at standard temperatures and pressures.
Fluorine condenses into a bright yellow liquid at −188 degrees celcius
Fluorine has two solid forms, α- and β-fluorine.
Fluorine is the most electronegative element.
Fluorine has a high magnetogyric ratio.
and exceptional sensitivity to magnetic fields.
Fluorine is extremely reactive.
Almost all other elements, including some noble gases, form compounds with fluorine.
Moissan's method is used to produce industrial amounts of fluorine.
Uses:
Fluoride in dental care.
Fluorosurfactant treated fabrics are often hydrophobic.
Compounds of fluorine are widely used in steel-making and aluminium-refining.
And it's used in the chemical industry.
Dangers:
Elemental fluorine is highly toxic to living organisms
A fluorine atom exists of 9 electrons, 9 protons and 10 neutrons.
Fluorine the lightest halogen and exists as a highly toxic pale yellow
diatomic gas at standard temperatures and pressures.
Fluorine condenses into a bright yellow liquid at −188 degrees celcius
Fluorine has two solid forms, α- and β-fluorine.
Fluorine is the most electronegative element.
Fluorine has a high magnetogyric ratio.
and exceptional sensitivity to magnetic fields.
Fluorine is extremely reactive.
Almost all other elements, including some noble gases, form compounds with fluorine.
Moissan's method is used to produce industrial amounts of fluorine.
Uses:
Fluoride in dental care.
Fluorosurfactant treated fabrics are often hydrophobic.
Compounds of fluorine are widely used in steel-making and aluminium-refining.
And it's used in the chemical industry.
Dangers:
Elemental fluorine is highly toxic to living organisms
donderdag 16 november 2017
Biofuel notes
Biofuel is fuel which is produced through contemporary biological processes
Biofuels can be derived directly from plants,
or indirectly from agriculture or domestics.
new kinds of biofuels generally involve contemporary carbon fixation,
such as those that occur in plants or microalgae
through the process of photosynthesis.
And other new kinds of biofuels are made by conversion of biomass
such as plants or plant derived material.
Biomass can be converted to convenient energy containing substances
in three different ways:
-thermal conversion,
-chemical conversion,
-and biochemical conversion.
And these biomass conversion can result in fuel which is a solid,
a liquid, or a gas.
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mainly of carbohydrates.
And is produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes
through the fermentation of sugars or starches.
Bioethanol can be used as fuel for vehicles in its pure form,
but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions.
Biodiesel Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids
such as vegetable oil and soybean oil.
Biobutanol also called biogasoline can be used directly in gasoline engines.
Biogas is methane produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by anaerobes.
First generation biofuels
-Are biofuels made from food crops grown on arable land.
Second generation biofuels
-Are biofuels manufactured from various types of biomass.
Third generation biofuels
-These biofuels are made through the use of algea.
Extra: From algae that have a natural oil content greater than 50 percent.
Fourth generation biofuels
-These biofuels include electrofuels and photobiological solar fuels.
Extra: Some of these fuels are carbon neutral.
Biofuels can be derived directly from plants,
or indirectly from agriculture or domestics.
new kinds of biofuels generally involve contemporary carbon fixation,
such as those that occur in plants or microalgae
through the process of photosynthesis.
And other new kinds of biofuels are made by conversion of biomass
such as plants or plant derived material.
Biomass can be converted to convenient energy containing substances
in three different ways:
-thermal conversion,
-chemical conversion,
-and biochemical conversion.
And these biomass conversion can result in fuel which is a solid,
a liquid, or a gas.
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mainly of carbohydrates.
And is produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes
through the fermentation of sugars or starches.
Bioethanol can be used as fuel for vehicles in its pure form,
but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions.
Biodiesel Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids
such as vegetable oil and soybean oil.
Biobutanol also called biogasoline can be used directly in gasoline engines.
Biogas is methane produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by anaerobes.
First generation biofuels
-Are biofuels made from food crops grown on arable land.
Second generation biofuels
-Are biofuels manufactured from various types of biomass.
Third generation biofuels
-These biofuels are made through the use of algea.
Extra: From algae that have a natural oil content greater than 50 percent.
Fourth generation biofuels
-These biofuels include electrofuels and photobiological solar fuels.
Extra: Some of these fuels are carbon neutral.
dinsdag 14 november 2017
Oxygen notes
Oxygen has atomic number 8 and the symbol O
An oxygen atom has 8 electrons, 8 protons and 8 neutrons
Oxygen is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table,
a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent.
Oxygen's melting point is -218.79 degrees celcius
And oxygen's boiling point is - 297.332 degrees celcius.
At standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of oxygen bind to
form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O2.
Dioxygen (O2) is used in cellular respiration
and many major classes of organic molecules in living organisms contain oxygen,
like proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and fats,
And the major constituent inorganic compounds of animals.
Oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis here on earth,
in which for example trees, grass and algea use the energy of sunlight
to produce oxygen as a byproduct carbon dioxide and water.
Another allotrope (form) of oxygen is ozone (O3).
It strongly absorbs ultraviolet radiation. And the high altitude ozone layer
protects life here on earth for example.
Uses:
Residential heating.
Life support systems which have normal air oxygen in it.
Internal combustion engines.
Production of steel.
Production of plastics and textiles.
Brazing.
Welding and cutting of steels and other metal.
And as a rocket propellant.
An oxygen atom has 8 electrons, 8 protons and 8 neutrons
Oxygen is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table,
a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent.
Oxygen's melting point is -218.79 degrees celcius
And oxygen's boiling point is - 297.332 degrees celcius.
At standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of oxygen bind to
form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O2.
Dioxygen (O2) is used in cellular respiration
and many major classes of organic molecules in living organisms contain oxygen,
like proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and fats,
And the major constituent inorganic compounds of animals.
Oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis here on earth,
in which for example trees, grass and algea use the energy of sunlight
to produce oxygen as a byproduct carbon dioxide and water.
Another allotrope (form) of oxygen is ozone (O3).
It strongly absorbs ultraviolet radiation. And the high altitude ozone layer
protects life here on earth for example.
Uses:
Residential heating.
Life support systems which have normal air oxygen in it.
Internal combustion engines.
Production of steel.
Production of plastics and textiles.
Brazing.
Welding and cutting of steels and other metal.
And as a rocket propellant.
maandag 13 november 2017
Short: What are isotopes
Isotopes are variants of certain chemical elements which differ in neutron numbers.
Nitrogen notes
Nitrogen is atomic number 7 with the symbol N
Nitrogen has 7 electrons, 7 protons and 7 neutrons
Nitrogen is a gas at standard temperatures and pressures
Nitrogen's melting point is -210 degrees celcius
And nitrogen's boiling point is -195.795 degrees celcius
Nitrogen has one of the highest electronegativities among the elements.
Nitrogen occurs in all organisms.
Primarily in amino acids, in the nucleic acids and in the energy transfer molecule adenosine
triphosphate.
At standard temperatures and pressures,
two atoms of the element bind to form dinitrogen.
Nitrogen has two stable isotopes:
14N and 15N. Of which 14N is much more common, being more then 99 percent of natural nitrogen.
Phases and forms:
-Normal gas nitrogen at standard room temperatures and pressures
-Liquid nitrogen is nitrogen in a liquid state at an extremely low temperature
-Solid nitrogen is the solid form of the element nitrogen
Production:
-Nitrogen gas is an industrial gas produced by the fractional distillation of liquid air,
or by mechanical means using gaseous air.
Uses:
-Synthetically produced nitrates are key industrial fertilisers.
-Nitrogen is a constituent of every major pharmacological drug class.
-Nitrogen is used in incandescent light bulbs as an inexpensive alternative to argon.
-Nitrogen fire suppression systems.
-Nitrogen is used in the manufacturing of stainless steel.
-Nitrogen is used in the case hardening of steel by nitriding.
-Nitrogen is used in some aircraft fuel systems to reduce fire hazard.
-Nitrogen is used to inflate race car and aircraft tires.
Liquid nitrogen uses:
-The main use of liquid nitrogen is as a refrigerant.
-Nitrogen is used in the cryopreservation of blood, reproductive cells.
Nitrogen has 7 electrons, 7 protons and 7 neutrons
Nitrogen is a gas at standard temperatures and pressures
Nitrogen's melting point is -210 degrees celcius
And nitrogen's boiling point is -195.795 degrees celcius
Nitrogen has one of the highest electronegativities among the elements.
Nitrogen occurs in all organisms.
Primarily in amino acids, in the nucleic acids and in the energy transfer molecule adenosine
triphosphate.
At standard temperatures and pressures,
two atoms of the element bind to form dinitrogen.
Nitrogen has two stable isotopes:
14N and 15N. Of which 14N is much more common, being more then 99 percent of natural nitrogen.
Phases and forms:
-Normal gas nitrogen at standard room temperatures and pressures
-Liquid nitrogen is nitrogen in a liquid state at an extremely low temperature
-Solid nitrogen is the solid form of the element nitrogen
Production:
-Nitrogen gas is an industrial gas produced by the fractional distillation of liquid air,
or by mechanical means using gaseous air.
Uses:
-Synthetically produced nitrates are key industrial fertilisers.
-Nitrogen is a constituent of every major pharmacological drug class.
-Nitrogen is used in incandescent light bulbs as an inexpensive alternative to argon.
-Nitrogen fire suppression systems.
-Nitrogen is used in the manufacturing of stainless steel.
-Nitrogen is used in the case hardening of steel by nitriding.
-Nitrogen is used in some aircraft fuel systems to reduce fire hazard.
-Nitrogen is used to inflate race car and aircraft tires.
Liquid nitrogen uses:
-The main use of liquid nitrogen is as a refrigerant.
-Nitrogen is used in the cryopreservation of blood, reproductive cells.
zondag 12 november 2017
Carbon
Carbon is a chemical element with atomic number 6 and the symbol C
A carbon atom exists out of 6 electrons, 6 protons and 6 neutrons
Carbon's sublimation point is: 3642 degrees celcius
Sublimation is the phase transition of a substance directly
from a solid phase to a gas phase without passing through
the intermediate liquid phase.
Carbon is a nonmetallic and tetravalent, making four electrons
available on the outer ring of the electron shell to form covalent chemical bonds.
Three isotopes occur naturally being 12C and 13C which are stable,
while 14C is a radionuclide.
Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth's crust.
it has an unique diversity of organic compounds,
and it has an unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures
commonly encountered on Earth enables this element
to serve as a common element of all known life.
The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways.
The best known are graphite, diamond, and amorphous carbon.
And the physical properties of carbon vary widely with the
allotropic form.
For example: graphite is opaque, soft and breakable (mohs scale 1-2) and black
while diamond is very hard (mohs scale 10) and highly transparent.
Under normal conditions, diamond, carbon nanotubes, and graphene have the highest thermal
conductivities of all known materials.
Graphite properties:
-Graphite is one of the softest materials known.
-Graphite is a very good lubricant even displaying superlubricity.
-Graphite is a conductor of electricity.
-Some forms of graphite are used for thermal insulation while some other forms are good thermal conductors.
Diamond properties:
-Synthetic nanocrystalline diamond is the hardest known material.
-Diamond is the best known naturally occurring thermal conductor.
-Diamond is the ultimate abrasive.
-Diamond is an excellent electrical insulator, and has the highest breakdown of electric field of any known material.
-Diamond is the best known naturally occurring thermal conductor.
Graphene:
Graphene is an allotrope form of carbon consisting of a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in an hexagonal lattice.
And it is nearly transpirant.
Properties of graphene:
-Graphene is the strongest material ever tested
-Graphene shows a large and nonlinear diamagnetism.
-And graphene has very high electrical conductivity.
Uses:
-To turn iron in to steel with the carbon amount usually being less then 1 percent
-Tungsten carbide is prepared by reaction of tungsten metal and carbon at 1400 to 2000 degrees celcius
-Graphite combined with clays for writing
-And ink can be made from it
-As a fossil fuel
-Coal and oil are used as fuel for production of energy
-Carbon is used in electrodes for dry batteries
-In electroplating
-And electroforming
-It is used in brushes for electric motors
-As a neutron moderator in nuclear reactors
-For making carbon fiber
A carbon atom exists out of 6 electrons, 6 protons and 6 neutrons
Carbon's sublimation point is: 3642 degrees celcius
Sublimation is the phase transition of a substance directly
from a solid phase to a gas phase without passing through
the intermediate liquid phase.
Carbon is a nonmetallic and tetravalent, making four electrons
available on the outer ring of the electron shell to form covalent chemical bonds.
Three isotopes occur naturally being 12C and 13C which are stable,
while 14C is a radionuclide.
Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth's crust.
it has an unique diversity of organic compounds,
and it has an unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures
commonly encountered on Earth enables this element
to serve as a common element of all known life.
The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways.
The best known are graphite, diamond, and amorphous carbon.
And the physical properties of carbon vary widely with the
allotropic form.
For example: graphite is opaque, soft and breakable (mohs scale 1-2) and black
while diamond is very hard (mohs scale 10) and highly transparent.
Under normal conditions, diamond, carbon nanotubes, and graphene have the highest thermal
conductivities of all known materials.
Graphite properties:
-Graphite is one of the softest materials known.
-Graphite is a very good lubricant even displaying superlubricity.
-Graphite is a conductor of electricity.
-Some forms of graphite are used for thermal insulation while some other forms are good thermal conductors.
Diamond properties:
-Synthetic nanocrystalline diamond is the hardest known material.
-Diamond is the best known naturally occurring thermal conductor.
-Diamond is the ultimate abrasive.
-Diamond is an excellent electrical insulator, and has the highest breakdown of electric field of any known material.
-Diamond is the best known naturally occurring thermal conductor.
Graphene:
Graphene is an allotrope form of carbon consisting of a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in an hexagonal lattice.
And it is nearly transpirant.
Properties of graphene:
-Graphene is the strongest material ever tested
-Graphene shows a large and nonlinear diamagnetism.
-And graphene has very high electrical conductivity.
Uses:
-To turn iron in to steel with the carbon amount usually being less then 1 percent
-Tungsten carbide is prepared by reaction of tungsten metal and carbon at 1400 to 2000 degrees celcius
-Graphite combined with clays for writing
-And ink can be made from it
-As a fossil fuel
-Coal and oil are used as fuel for production of energy
-Carbon is used in electrodes for dry batteries
-In electroplating
-And electroforming
-It is used in brushes for electric motors
-As a neutron moderator in nuclear reactors
-For making carbon fiber
vrijdag 10 november 2017
Boron notes
Boron is a chemical element with atomic number 5 and the symbol B
Boron's melting point is 2076 degrees celcius
And it's boiling point is 3927 degrees celcius
There are several allotropes of boron:
Amorphous boron is a brown powder.
And crystalline boron is silvery to black and extremely hard, about 9.5 on the Mohs scale.
Isotopes:
Boron has two isotopes, boron-10 and boron-11.
And boron-10 has five protons and five neutrons.
Uses:
-Boron's primary use is as boron filaments with applications
similar to carbon fibers in some high strength materials.
-As an additive in fiberglass for insulation and structural materials.
-In polymers and ceramics in high strength, lightweight structural and refractory materials.
-Boron compounds are used as fertilizers in agriculture.
-In sodium perborate bleaches.
-And a small amount of boron is used as a dopant in semiconductors.
-Boron is a component of neodymium magnets
-And for borosilicate glass
Extra:
Boron or 10B is used in radiation shielding
And in nuclear reactors, 10B is used for reactivity control and in emergency shutdown systems
Boron's melting point is 2076 degrees celcius
And it's boiling point is 3927 degrees celcius
There are several allotropes of boron:
Amorphous boron is a brown powder.
And crystalline boron is silvery to black and extremely hard, about 9.5 on the Mohs scale.
Isotopes:
Boron has two isotopes, boron-10 and boron-11.
And boron-10 has five protons and five neutrons.
Uses:
-Boron's primary use is as boron filaments with applications
similar to carbon fibers in some high strength materials.
-As an additive in fiberglass for insulation and structural materials.
-In polymers and ceramics in high strength, lightweight structural and refractory materials.
-Boron compounds are used as fertilizers in agriculture.
-In sodium perborate bleaches.
-And a small amount of boron is used as a dopant in semiconductors.
-Boron is a component of neodymium magnets
-And for borosilicate glass
Extra:
Boron or 10B is used in radiation shielding
And in nuclear reactors, 10B is used for reactivity control and in emergency shutdown systems
woensdag 8 november 2017
Beryllium notes
Beryllium is a chemical element with atomic number 4 and the symbol Be.
The nucleus of a beryllium atom consists of 4 protons and 5 neutrons.
Beryllium is a free element and it's colour is steel gray.
It is a strong, lightweight and brittle alkaline earth metal.
Berylliums melting point is 1287 degrees celcius.
And it's boiling point is 2469 degrees celcius.
Beryllium has exceptional stiffness.
The modulus of elasticity of beryllium is approximately 50 percent greater than that of steel.
Beryllium is a metal with the best heat dissipation characteristics per unit weight
And has relatively low coefficient of linear thermal expansion.
Beryllium has high electrical conductivity.
And it is non magnetic.
Production:
Beryllium is most commonly extracted from the mineral beryl, which is either sintered using an extraction agent or melted into a soluble mixture.
Uses:
Beryllium is added as an alloying element to aluminium, copper, iron and nickel.
Extra: Tools made of beryllium copper alloys are strong and hard
and do not create sparks when striking a steel surface.
Beryllium metal is a desirable aerospace material for aircraft components, missiles, spacecraft, and satellites.
Because of the combination of high flexural rigidity, thermal stability, thermal conductivity and low density.
It is the most common window material for X-ray equipment and components of particle detectors.
Beryllium and beryllium oxide have high thermal conductivities which led to their use in thermal management applications.
Hand tools made of beryllium are used to tune the highly magnetic klystrons, magnetrons, traveling wave tubes in the field
of radio communications.
Beryllium oxide is often used as an insulator base plate in high power transistors in radio frequency transmitters for telecommunications.
Beryllium is commonly used in some neutron sources in laboratory devices in which relatively few neutrons are needed.
Beryllium is used in fuel fabrication for CANDU reactors.
And beryllium is a p-type dopant in III-V compound semiconductors
Possible use:
Beryllium oxide is being studied for the use in increasing the thermal conductivity of uranium dioxide nuclear fuel pellets.
Extra, safety:
The commercial use of beryllium requires the use of appropriate dust control equipment,
because the toxicity of inhaled beryllium containing dusts can cause a chronic life threatening allergic disease in some people
The nucleus of a beryllium atom consists of 4 protons and 5 neutrons.
Beryllium is a free element and it's colour is steel gray.
It is a strong, lightweight and brittle alkaline earth metal.
Berylliums melting point is 1287 degrees celcius.
And it's boiling point is 2469 degrees celcius.
Beryllium has exceptional stiffness.
The modulus of elasticity of beryllium is approximately 50 percent greater than that of steel.
Beryllium is a metal with the best heat dissipation characteristics per unit weight
And has relatively low coefficient of linear thermal expansion.
Beryllium has high electrical conductivity.
And it is non magnetic.
Production:
Beryllium is most commonly extracted from the mineral beryl, which is either sintered using an extraction agent or melted into a soluble mixture.
Uses:
Beryllium is added as an alloying element to aluminium, copper, iron and nickel.
Extra: Tools made of beryllium copper alloys are strong and hard
and do not create sparks when striking a steel surface.
Beryllium metal is a desirable aerospace material for aircraft components, missiles, spacecraft, and satellites.
Because of the combination of high flexural rigidity, thermal stability, thermal conductivity and low density.
It is the most common window material for X-ray equipment and components of particle detectors.
Beryllium and beryllium oxide have high thermal conductivities which led to their use in thermal management applications.
Hand tools made of beryllium are used to tune the highly magnetic klystrons, magnetrons, traveling wave tubes in the field
of radio communications.
Beryllium oxide is often used as an insulator base plate in high power transistors in radio frequency transmitters for telecommunications.
Beryllium is commonly used in some neutron sources in laboratory devices in which relatively few neutrons are needed.
Beryllium is used in fuel fabrication for CANDU reactors.
And beryllium is a p-type dopant in III-V compound semiconductors
Possible use:
Beryllium oxide is being studied for the use in increasing the thermal conductivity of uranium dioxide nuclear fuel pellets.
Extra, safety:
The commercial use of beryllium requires the use of appropriate dust control equipment,
because the toxicity of inhaled beryllium containing dusts can cause a chronic life threatening allergic disease in some people
dinsdag 7 november 2017
Lithium notes
Lithium is a chemical element with atomic number 3 and the symbol Li
Lithium is made up of three electrons bound by the electromagnetic
force to a nucleus containing three protons along with either
three or four neutrons which depends on the isotope.
It is a soft, silver-white alkali metal.
Under standard conditions, it is the lightest metal
and the lightest solid element.
And like all alkali metals, lithium is highly reactive and flammable.
lithium is therefore usually stored in a hydrocarbon sealant,
often being petroleum jelly.
Lithium will ignite and burn in oxygen when exposed to water or water vapors.
As with all alkali metals, lithium fires are difficult to put out,
requiring dry powder fire extinguishers.
Lithiums melting point is 180.50 degrees celcius.
And it's boiling point is 1330 degrees celcius.
The metal is produced through electrolysis from a mixture of fused
55% lithium chloride and 45% potassium chloride at about 450 degrees celcius.
Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes, 6Li and 7Li,
Lithium is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Lithium's coefficient of thermal expansion is twice that of aluminium and almost four times that of iron.
Lithium is the only low numbered element that can produce net energy through nuclear fission.
Uses:
Lithium has important uses in nuclear physics.
Lithium metal is often used in coolants for heat transfer applications.
In heat-resistant glass and ceramics.
lithium grease lubricants.
Flux additives for iron.
steel and aluminium production.
Silicon nano-welding.
lithium batteries.
And lithium-ion batteries.
Because of its low atomic mass, it has a high charge- and power-to-weight ratio.
Lithium is made up of three electrons bound by the electromagnetic
force to a nucleus containing three protons along with either
three or four neutrons which depends on the isotope.
It is a soft, silver-white alkali metal.
Under standard conditions, it is the lightest metal
and the lightest solid element.
And like all alkali metals, lithium is highly reactive and flammable.
lithium is therefore usually stored in a hydrocarbon sealant,
often being petroleum jelly.
Lithium will ignite and burn in oxygen when exposed to water or water vapors.
As with all alkali metals, lithium fires are difficult to put out,
requiring dry powder fire extinguishers.
Lithiums melting point is 180.50 degrees celcius.
And it's boiling point is 1330 degrees celcius.
The metal is produced through electrolysis from a mixture of fused
55% lithium chloride and 45% potassium chloride at about 450 degrees celcius.
Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes, 6Li and 7Li,
Lithium is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Lithium's coefficient of thermal expansion is twice that of aluminium and almost four times that of iron.
Lithium is the only low numbered element that can produce net energy through nuclear fission.
Uses:
Lithium has important uses in nuclear physics.
Lithium metal is often used in coolants for heat transfer applications.
In heat-resistant glass and ceramics.
lithium grease lubricants.
Flux additives for iron.
steel and aluminium production.
Silicon nano-welding.
lithium batteries.
And lithium-ion batteries.
Because of its low atomic mass, it has a high charge- and power-to-weight ratio.
maandag 6 november 2017
Helium
Helium is a chemical element with atomic number 2 and the symbol He
It is a colorless, odorless, inert and monatomic gas.
And is the first in the noble gas group in the periodic table.
It is the second lightest atom.
Helium is composed of two electrons in atomic orbitals
surrounding a nucleus which has two protons and (usually) two neutrons.
Heliums melting point is −272.20 °C
And it's boiling point is −268.928 °C
Isotopes:
-There are nine known isotopes of helium, but only helium-3 and helium-4 are stable.
Forms:
-Normal helium at standard temperatures and pressures
-Solid helium
At 25 atmospheres of pressure helium is a solid at 0.95 K
And helium could also be made solid at room temperature if the pressure rises to about 114 thousand atmospheres
-Helium I
Below its boiling point of -268,93 celcius and above the lambda point of
-270,97 celcius, the isotope helium-4 exists in a normal colorless liquid state.
-And Helium II
Liquid helium below its lambda point is called helium II
Uses:
Liquid helium is used in cryogenics, particularly in the cooling of
superconducting magnets.
Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding processes on materials
that at welding temperatures are contaminated and weakened by air or nitrogen.
Helium–neon lasers, a type of low-powered gas laser producing a red beam.
Helium is also used as a heat-transfer medium in some gas-cooled nuclear reactors.
Helium, when mixed with a heavier gas like xenon, is useful for thermoacoustic refrigeration.
Helium is also used in some hard disk drives.
One industrial use for helium is leak detection.
Because helium is lighter than air, helium can be used for lift through inflating something it can lift.
And it exhibits a red orange glow when placed in an electric field.
It is a colorless, odorless, inert and monatomic gas.
And is the first in the noble gas group in the periodic table.
It is the second lightest atom.
Helium is composed of two electrons in atomic orbitals
surrounding a nucleus which has two protons and (usually) two neutrons.
Heliums melting point is −272.20 °C
And it's boiling point is −268.928 °C
Isotopes:
-There are nine known isotopes of helium, but only helium-3 and helium-4 are stable.
Forms:
-Normal helium at standard temperatures and pressures
-Solid helium
At 25 atmospheres of pressure helium is a solid at 0.95 K
And helium could also be made solid at room temperature if the pressure rises to about 114 thousand atmospheres
-Helium I
Below its boiling point of -268,93 celcius and above the lambda point of
-270,97 celcius, the isotope helium-4 exists in a normal colorless liquid state.
-And Helium II
Liquid helium below its lambda point is called helium II
Uses:
Liquid helium is used in cryogenics, particularly in the cooling of
superconducting magnets.
Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding processes on materials
that at welding temperatures are contaminated and weakened by air or nitrogen.
Helium–neon lasers, a type of low-powered gas laser producing a red beam.
Helium is also used as a heat-transfer medium in some gas-cooled nuclear reactors.
Helium, when mixed with a heavier gas like xenon, is useful for thermoacoustic refrigeration.
Helium is also used in some hard disk drives.
One industrial use for helium is leak detection.
Because helium is lighter than air, helium can be used for lift through inflating something it can lift.
And it exhibits a red orange glow when placed in an electric field.
zondag 5 november 2017
Hydrogen notes
Hydrogen is a chemical element with atomic numer 1 and the symbol H
It is the lightest atom on the periodic table
It is a colorless gas at standart temperatures and pressures
It's melting point is −259.16 °C and it's boiling point is −252.879 °C
The ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is −13.6 eV.
The most common isotope of hydrogen, termed protium
symbol 1H, has one proton and no neutrons.
And hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted 1
H, 2H and 3H
Hydrogen gas is a highly flammable gas
Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from 4 to 74 percent
And the explosive reactions may for example be triggered by a spark or heat.
Hydrogen is commonly used in power stations as a coolant in generators.
Because of its low density, low viscosity, and the highest specific heat and thermal conductivity of all gases.
And the Suns energy comes from nuclear fusion of hydrogen
Hydrogens phases
- Gaseous hydrogen
At standard temperatures and pressures
- Liquid hydrogen
Hydrogen was liquefied for the first time by using regenerative cooling
- Slush hydrogen
Slush hydrogen is a combination of liquid hydrogen and
solid hydrogen at the triple point with a lower temperature
and a higher density than liquid hydrogen
- Solid hydrogen
Solid is achieved by decreasing the temperature below hydrogens
melting point of −259.14 °C
- Metallic hydrogen
At high pressure and temperatures, metallic hydrogen might exist in a liquid form rather than a solid form
It is the lightest atom on the periodic table
It is a colorless gas at standart temperatures and pressures
It's melting point is −259.16 °C and it's boiling point is −252.879 °C
The ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is −13.6 eV.
The most common isotope of hydrogen, termed protium
symbol 1H, has one proton and no neutrons.
And hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted 1
H, 2H and 3H
Hydrogen gas is a highly flammable gas
Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from 4 to 74 percent
And the explosive reactions may for example be triggered by a spark or heat.
Hydrogen is commonly used in power stations as a coolant in generators.
Because of its low density, low viscosity, and the highest specific heat and thermal conductivity of all gases.
And the Suns energy comes from nuclear fusion of hydrogen
Hydrogens phases
- Gaseous hydrogen
At standard temperatures and pressures
- Liquid hydrogen
Hydrogen was liquefied for the first time by using regenerative cooling
- Slush hydrogen
Slush hydrogen is a combination of liquid hydrogen and
solid hydrogen at the triple point with a lower temperature
and a higher density than liquid hydrogen
- Solid hydrogen
Solid is achieved by decreasing the temperature below hydrogens
melting point of −259.14 °C
- Metallic hydrogen
At high pressure and temperatures, metallic hydrogen might exist in a liquid form rather than a solid form
vrijdag 3 november 2017
Wind turbine notes
Wind turbines
Wind turbines convert wind into electrical energy.
And the amount of electrical energy produced depends on wind speeds.
A measure of wind energy available is called the Wind Power Density.
Types of turbines:
There are horizontal and vertical axis wind turbines.
The horizontal ones are used the most and are most effective.
Extra:
Horizontal axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft
and electrical generator at the top of a tower.
Vertical axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft
arranged vertically. An advantage of this is that the arrangement of the turbine does not
need to be pointed into the wind to be effective
Design and construction:
Overall:
Aerodynamic modeling is used to determine the optimum tower height,
control systems, number of blades and blade shape.
Rotor blades:
Materials that are usually used for the rotor blades in wind turbines
are composites, as they tend to have a high stiffness, high strength,
high fatigue resistance, and low weight.
Most used resins used for these composites include polyester and epoxy.
And glass and carbon fibers have been used as reinforcing material.
What they exist of:
-The tower
-The rotor
-The blades
-The pitch
-Low-speed shaft
-Brake
-Gear box
-Generator
-High speed shaft
-Yaw drive
-Yaw moter
-Controller
-Anemometer
-Wind vane
-Nacelle
Efficiency:
Betz's law gives the maximal achievable extraction of
wind power by a wind turbine as 59.3%
of the total kinetic energy of the air flowing through the turbine
Placements:
Wind turbines are placed on land but are also placed in the sea or ocean, called
offshore windmills. And there are also floating wind turbines.
Wind turbines convert wind into electrical energy.
And the amount of electrical energy produced depends on wind speeds.
A measure of wind energy available is called the Wind Power Density.
Types of turbines:
There are horizontal and vertical axis wind turbines.
The horizontal ones are used the most and are most effective.
Extra:
Horizontal axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft
and electrical generator at the top of a tower.
Vertical axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft
arranged vertically. An advantage of this is that the arrangement of the turbine does not
need to be pointed into the wind to be effective
Design and construction:
Overall:
Aerodynamic modeling is used to determine the optimum tower height,
control systems, number of blades and blade shape.
Rotor blades:
Materials that are usually used for the rotor blades in wind turbines
are composites, as they tend to have a high stiffness, high strength,
high fatigue resistance, and low weight.
Most used resins used for these composites include polyester and epoxy.
And glass and carbon fibers have been used as reinforcing material.
What they exist of:
-The tower
-The rotor
-The blades
-The pitch
-Low-speed shaft
-Brake
-Gear box
-Generator
-High speed shaft
-Yaw drive
-Yaw moter
-Controller
-Anemometer
-Wind vane
-Nacelle
Efficiency:
Betz's law gives the maximal achievable extraction of
wind power by a wind turbine as 59.3%
of the total kinetic energy of the air flowing through the turbine
Placements:
Wind turbines are placed on land but are also placed in the sea or ocean, called
offshore windmills. And there are also floating wind turbines.
donderdag 2 november 2017
Hydroelectricity notes
Hydroelectricity refers to electricity produced by hydropower.
Most hydroelectric power comes from dammed water which drive a water turbine
and a generator.
The hydropower depends on the volume and on the difference in height
between the source and the waters outflow.
And a large pipe delivers water from the reservoir to the turbine
Kinds of hydroelectricity methods:
Pumped storage
This method produces electricity to high demands by
moving water between reservoirs at different elevations.
Run of the river
have only a small or no reservoir capacity so the water
only comes from upstream. And oversupply passes unused.
Tidal
Makes use of the tides of the ocean water; The daily
rise and fall of ocean water due to tides.
Facilities and station:
There are large facilities, small facilities and micro and pico
And underground stations
With an underground tunnel to take water from the high reservoir
to the generating hall build in an underground cavern near the lowest point
of the water tunnel and there is another horizontal tailrace.
Good things:
It consumes no water.
It is a clean source of energy.
-It produces no direct waste
Most hydroelectric power comes from dammed water which drive a water turbine
and a generator.
The hydropower depends on the volume and on the difference in height
between the source and the waters outflow.
And a large pipe delivers water from the reservoir to the turbine
Kinds of hydroelectricity methods:
Pumped storage
This method produces electricity to high demands by
moving water between reservoirs at different elevations.
Run of the river
have only a small or no reservoir capacity so the water
only comes from upstream. And oversupply passes unused.
Tidal
Makes use of the tides of the ocean water; The daily
rise and fall of ocean water due to tides.
Facilities and station:
There are large facilities, small facilities and micro and pico
And underground stations
With an underground tunnel to take water from the high reservoir
to the generating hall build in an underground cavern near the lowest point
of the water tunnel and there is another horizontal tailrace.
Good things:
It consumes no water.
It is a clean source of energy.
-It produces no direct waste
woensdag 1 november 2017
Photovoltaics notes
Photovoltaics convert light into electricity using
semiconducting materials that produce the photovoltaic effect.
A solar panel, has a number of solar cells which generate electrical power.
Most photovoltaic systems are mounted on rooftops or on walls or are
stationary on the ground with solar panel fields.
And a solar tracker enables a solar panel to follow the sun.
Solar cell efficiency:
Refers to the portion of energy in the form of sunlight
that can be converted through photovoltaics into electricity.
Types of photovoltaics:
Silicon
-Amorphous -Monorphous and polymorphous
Black silicon
Perovskite
And many more types
Tandem and multijunction cells like silicon-perovskite
Concentrator photovoltaics
Uses lenses and curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto a small
but highly efficient, multi junction solar cells.
-Sometimes a tracker and a cooling system are also used
Extra:
Photovoltaics don't generate pollution and has no greenhouse gas
emissions once they are installed.
semiconducting materials that produce the photovoltaic effect.
A solar panel, has a number of solar cells which generate electrical power.
Most photovoltaic systems are mounted on rooftops or on walls or are
stationary on the ground with solar panel fields.
And a solar tracker enables a solar panel to follow the sun.
Solar cell efficiency:
Refers to the portion of energy in the form of sunlight
that can be converted through photovoltaics into electricity.
Types of photovoltaics:
Silicon
-Amorphous -Monorphous and polymorphous
Black silicon
Perovskite
And many more types
Tandem and multijunction cells like silicon-perovskite
Concentrator photovoltaics
Uses lenses and curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto a small
but highly efficient, multi junction solar cells.
-Sometimes a tracker and a cooling system are also used
Extra:
Photovoltaics don't generate pollution and has no greenhouse gas
emissions once they are installed.
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